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><H1
><A
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></A
>Chapter 7. Dithering</H1
><P
> The dithering code in
<TT
CLASS="filename"
>src/main/print-dither.c</TT
> attempts to
reproduce various shades of gray (or all colors) from only a few
different inks (black, cyan, magenta, yellow, and sometimes
light cyan and light magenta). The dots can't vary in darkness
or size (except for certain special printers), and so we need to
lay down a certain fraction of dots to represent each distinct
level.
</P
><P
> This sounds straightforward; in practice, it isn't. Completely
random distribution of dots (simple probabilistic dithering)
would create grainy clumps and light spots. The smoothest
pattern results from an equidistant spacing of dots.
Approximating this requires sophisticated algorithms. We have
two dithering algorithms, an ordered dither algorithm that uses
a grid (matrix) to decide whether to print, and a modified
Floyd-Steinberg error diffusion algorithm that uses a grid in a
slightly different way.
</P
><P
> We currently have three dithering functions:
</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="variablelist"
><DL
><DT
><VAR
CLASS="literal"
>dither_fastblack</VAR
></DT
><DD
><P
> This produces pure black or white from a pre-dithered
input. This is used for two purposes: for printing pure
black and white very quickly (e.g. text), and for printing
pre-screened monochrome output that was rasterized
externally.
</P
></DD
><DT
><VAR
CLASS="literal"
>dither_black</VAR
></DT
><DD
><P
> This produces black from grayscale input. The new
dither_black can produce either a single or multiple
levels of black, for printers supporting variable dot
size.
</P
></DD
><DT
><VAR
CLASS="literal"
>dither_cmyk</VAR
></DT
><DD
><P
> This produces 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 color output (CMY, CMYK,
CcMmYK, CcMmYy, CcMmYyK, or any variants). The new
routine can handle single or multiple levels of each
color.
</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
><P
> There is a choice of dithering algorithms. Four of them are
based on a basic error diffusion, with a few tweaks of my own.
The other one is ‘ordered’. However, they all share
the basic operation in common. First, the algorithm picks what
kind of dot (if there are multiple dot sizes and/or tones that
may be picked) is the candidate to be printed. This decision is
made based on the darkness at the point being dithered. Then,
it decides whether the dot will be printed at all. What this is
based on depends upon which algorithm family we use. This is
all described in more detail below.
</P
><P
> Ordered dithering works by comparing the value at a given point
with the value of a tiled matrix. If the value at the point is
greater than the value in the matrix, the dot is printed. The
matrix should consist of a set of evenly spaced points between 0
and the upper limit. The choice of matrix is very important for
print quality. A good dither matrix will emphasize high
frequency components, which distributes dots evenly with a
minimum of clumping. The matrices used here are all simple
matrices that are expanded recursively to create larger matrices
with the same kind of even point distribution. This is
described below.
</P
><P
> Note that it is important to use different matrices for the two
sub-operations, because otherwise the choice about whether to
print and the choice of dot size will be correlated. The usual
result is that the print is either too dark or too light, but
there can be other problems.
</P
><P
> Ordered dithering works quite well on single dot size, four
color printers. It has not been well tested on four color,
variable dot size printers. It should be avoided on six color
printers.
</P
><P
> Error diffusion works by taking the output error at a given
pixel and “diffusing” it into surrounding pixels.
Output error is the difference between the amount of ink output
and the input level at each pixel. For simple printers, with
one or four ink colors and only one dot size, the amount of ink
output is either 65536 (i. e. full output) or 0 (no output).
The difference between this and the input level is the error.
Normal error diffusion adds part of this error to the adjoining
pixels in the next column and the next row (the algorithm simply
scans each row in turn, never backing up). The error adds up
until it reaches a threshold (half of the full output level, or
32768), at which point a dot is output, the output is subtracted
from the current value, and the (now negative) error is diffused
similarly.
</P
><P
> Error diffusion works quite well in general, but it tends to
generate artifacts which usually appear as worm-like lines or
areas of anomalous density. I have devised some ways, as
described below, of ameliorating these artifacts.
</P
><P
> There are two sub-classes of error diffusion that we use here,
‘random’ and ‘hybrid’. One of the
techniques that we use to ameliorate the artifacts is to use a
fuzzy threshold rather than the hard threshold of half of the
output level. Random error diffusion uses a pseudo-random
number to perturb the threshold, while hybrid error diffusion
uses a matrix. Hybrid error diffusion worked very poorly in
3.1.3, and I couldn't figure out why until I found a bug. It
now works very well.
</P
><P
> There is one additional variant (on both sub-classes), called
‘adaptive hybrid’ and ‘adaptive random’.
The adaptive variant takes advantage of the fact that the
patterns that ordered dithering create are less visible at very
low densities, while the artifacts created by error diffusion
are more objectionable at low densities. At low densities,
therefore, it uses ordered dithering; at higher densities it
uses error diffusion.
</P
><P
> Handling multiple output levels makes life a bit more
complicated. In principle, it shouldn't be much harder: simply
figure out what the ratio between the available output levels is
and have multiple thresholds. In practice, getting these right
involves a lot of trial and error. The other thing that's
important is to maximize the number of dots that have some ink.
This will reduce the amount of speckling. More on this later.
</P
><P
> The next question: how do we handle black when printing in
color? Black ink is much darker than colored inks. It's
possible to produce black by adding some mixture of cyan,
magenta, and yellow—in principle. In practice, the black
really isn't very black, and different inks and different papers
will produce different color casts. However, by using CMY to
produce gray, we can output a lot more dots! This makes for a
much smoother image. What's more, one cyan, one magenta, and
one yellow dot produce less darkness than one black dot, so
we're outputting that many more dots. Better yet, with 6 or 7
color printers, we have to output even more light ink dots. So
Epson Stylus Photo printers can produce really smooth grays---if
we do everything right. The right idea is to use CMY at lower
black levels, and gradually mix in black as the overall amount
of ink increases, so the black dots don't really become visible
within the ink mass.
</P
><P
> Variable dot sizes are handled by dividing the range between 0
and 65536 into segments. Each segment can either represent a
range in which all of one kind of ink (color and/or dot size) is
used, with varying amounts of ink, or a transition region
between inks, in which equal numbers of dots are printed but the
amount of each ink will be adjusted throughout the range. Each
range is represented by four numbers:
</P
><P
></P
><UL
><LI
><P
> Bottom of the range.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Top of the range.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Value of the lighter ink.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>Value of the darker ink.
</P
></LI
></UL
><P
> In addition, the bit patterns and which type of ink are also
represented, but they don't affect the actual algorithm.
</P
><P
> As mentioned above, the basic algorithm is the same whether we
use ordered dither or error diffusion. We perform the following
steps on each color of each pixel:
</P
><P
></P
><OL
TYPE="1"
><LI
><P
> Compute the value of the particular color we're printing.
This isn't usually the pure CMY value; it's adjusted to
improve saturation and to limit the use of black in light
toned regions (to avoid speckling).
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Find the range containing this value.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Compute where this value lies within the range. We scale
the endpoints between 0 and 65536 for this purpose. So for
example, if the bottom of the range is 10,000 and the top of
the range is 20,000, and the value is 12,500, we're 1/4 of
the way between the bottom and the top of the range, so our
scale point is 16384.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Compute the “virtual value”. The virtual value
is the distance between the value of the lighter and the
value of the darker ink. So if the value of the light ink
is 32768 and the dark ink is 65536, we compute a virtual
value scaled appropriately between these two values, which
is 40960 in this case.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Using either error diffusion or ordered dither, the standard
threshold is 1/2 of the value (20480 in this case). Using
ordered dither, we want to compute a value between 0 and
40960 that we will compare the input value against to decide
whether to print. Using pure error diffusion, we would
compare the accumulated error against 20480 to decide
whether to print. In practice, we use the same matrix
method to decide whether to print. The correct amount of
ink will be printed this way, but we minimize the squiggly
lines characteristic of error diffusion by dithering the
threshold in this fashion. A future enhancement will allow
us to control the amount of dithering applied to the
threshold.
</P
></LI
></OL
><P
> The matrices were generated by Thomas Tonino
<CODE
CLASS="email"
><<A
HREF="mailto:ttonino@bio.vu.nl"
>ttonino@bio.vu.nl</A
>></CODE
> with an algorithm of his
devising. The algorithm is designed to maximize the spacing
between dots at any given density by searching the matrix for
holes and placing a dot in the largest available hole. It
requires careful selection of initial points to achieve good
results, and is very time consuming. For best results, a
different matrix must be used for modes with 2:1 aspect ratio
(e.g. 1440×720) than for 1:1 (e. g. 720×720). It is
essential with any of these matrices that every point be used.
Skipping points generates low-frequency noise.
</P
><P
> It's essential to use different matrices for deciding whether to
print and for deciding what color (dark or light) to print.
This should be obvious; the decision about whether to print at
all should be as independent as possible from the decision about
what color to print, because any bias will result in excess
light or dark ink being printed, shifting the tonal balance. We
actually use the same matrices, but we shift them vertically and
horizontally. Assuming that the matrices are not
self-correlated, this will yield good results.
</P
><P
> The ranges are computed from a list of ink values (between 0 and
1 for each possible combination of dot size and ink tone, where
the value represents the darkness of the ink) and the desired
maximum density of the ink. This is done in dither_set_ranges,
and needs more documentation.
</P
><P
> I stated earlier that I've tweaked the basic error diffusion
algorithm. Here's what I've done to improve it:
</P
><P
></P
><UL
><LI
><P
> We use a variable threshold to decide when to print, as
discussed above. This does two things for us: it reduces
the slightly squiggly diagonal lines that are the mark of
error diffusion; and it allows us to lay down some ink even
in very light areas near the edge of the image. The
squiggly lines that error diffusion algorithms tend to
generate are caused by the gradual accumulation of error.
This error is partially added horizontally and partially
vertically. The horizontal accumulation results in a dot
eventually being printed. The vertical accumulation results
in a dot getting laid down in roughly the same horizontal
position in the next row. The diagonal squigglies result
from the error being added to pixels one forward and one
below the current pixel; these lines slope from the top
right to the bottom left of the image.
</P
><P
> Error diffusion also results in pale areas being completely
white near the top left of the image (the origin of the
printing coordinates). This is because enough error has to
accumulate for anything at all to get printed. In very pale
areas it takes quite a long time to build up anything
printable at all; this results in the bare spots.
</P
><P
> Randomizing the threshold somewhat breaks up the diagonals
to some degree by randomizing the exact location that the
accumulated output crosses the threshold. It reduces the
false white areas by allowing some dots to be printed even
when the accumulated output level is very low. It doesn't
result in excess ink because the full output level is still
subtracted and diffused.
</P
><P
> Excessive randomization leads to blobs at high densities.
Therefore, as the density increases, the degree of
randomization decreases.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Alternating scan direction between rows (first row is
scanned left to right, second is scanned right to left, and
so on). This also helps break up white areas, and it also
seems to break up squigglies a bit. Furthermore, it
eliminates directional biases in the horizontal direction.
This isn't necessary for ordered dither, but it doesn't hurt
either.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Diffusing the error into more pixels. Instead of diffusing
the entire error into (X+1, Y) and (X, Y+1), we diffuse it
into (X+1, Y), (X+K, Y+1), (X, Y+1), (X-K, Y+1) where K
depends upon the output level (it never exceeds about 10
dots, and is greater at higher output levels). This really
reduces squigglies and graininess. The amount of this
spread can be controlled; for line art, it should be less
than for photographs (of course, line art doesn't usually
contain much light color, but the <SPAN
CLASS="emphasis"
><I
CLASS="emphasis"
>error</I
></SPAN
>
value can be small in places!) In addition to requiring
more computation, a wide ink spread results in patterning at
high dot densities (note that the dot density can be high
even in fairly pale regions if multiple dot sizes are in
use).
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Don't lay down any colored ink if we're laying down black
ink. There's no point; the colored ink won't show. We
still pretend that we did for purposes of error diffusion
(otherwise excessive error will build up, and will take a
long time to clear, resulting in heavy bleeding of ink into
surrounding areas, which is very ugly indeed), but we don't
bother wasting the ink. How well this will do with variable
dot size remains to be seen.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> Oversampling. This is how to print 1440×720 with Epson
Stylus printers. Printing full density at 1440×720 will
result in excess ink being laid down. The trick is to print
only every other dot. We still compute the error as though we
printed every dot. It turns out that randomizing which dots
are printed results in very speckled output. This can be
taken too far; oversampling at 1440×1440 or
1440×2880 virtual resolution results in other problems.
However, at present 1440×1440 (which is more accurately
called "1440×720 enhanced", as the Epson printers cannot
print 1440 rows per inch) does quite well, although it's slow.
</P
></LI
></UL
><P
> What about multiple output levels? For 6 and 7 color printers,
simply using different threshold levels has a problem: the pale
inks have trouble being seen when a lot of darker ink is being
printed. So rather than just using the output level of the
particular color to decide which ink to print, we look at the
total density (sum of all output levels). If the density's high
enough, we prefer to use the dark ink. Speckling is less
visible when there's a lot of ink, anyway. I haven't yet
figured out what to do for multiple levels of one color.
</P
><P
> You'll note that I haven't quoted a single source on color or
printing theory. I simply did all of this empirically.
</P
><P
> There are various other tricks to reduce speckling. One that
I've seen is to reduce the amount of ink printed in regions
where one color (particularly cyan, which is perceived as the
darkest) is very pale. This does reduce speckling all right,
but it also results in strange tonal curves and weird (to my
eye) colors.
</P
><P
> Before any dither routine is used,
<CODE
CLASS="function"
>init_dither</CODE
> must be called. This takes
three arguments: the input width (number of pixels in the
input), the output width (number of pixels in the output), and a
<SPAN
CLASS="type"
>stp_vars_t</SPAN
> structure containing the parameters for
the print job.
</P
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>init_dither</CODE
> returns a pointer to an opaque
object representing the dither. This object is passed as the first
argument to all of the dither-related routines.
</P
><P
> After a page is fully dithered, <CODE
CLASS="function"
>free_dither</CODE
>
must be called to free the dither object and perform any
cleanup. In the future, this may do more (such as flush
output). This arrangement permits using these routines with
programs that create multiple output pages, such as GhostScript.
</P
><P
> The dithering routines themselves have a number of control knobs
that control internal aspects of the dithering process. These
knobs are accessible via a number of functions that can be
called after <CODE
CLASS="function"
>init_dither</CODE
>.
</P
><P
></P
><UL
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_density</CODE
> takes a double
between 0 and 1 representing the desired ink density for
printing solid colors. This is used in a number of places
in the dithering routine to make decisions.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_black_density</CODE
> takes a double
between 0 and 1 representing the desired ink density for
printing black ink in color printing. This is used to
balance black against color ink. By default, this is equal
to the density set by
<CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_density</CODE
>. By setting it
higher, more black ink will be printed. For example, if the
base density is .4 and the black density is .8, twice as
much black ink will be printed as would otherwise be called
for.
</P
><P
> This is not used when printing in monochrome. When printing
monochrome, the base density
(<CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_density</CODE
>) should be adjusted
appropriately.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_ink_budget</CODE
> takes an unsigned
number representing the most ink that may be deposited at a
given point. This number is arbitrary; the limit is
computed by summing the size of each ink dot, which is
supplied as a parameter in
<CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_X_ranges</CODE
>. By default, there
is no limit.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_black_lower</CODE
> takes a double
that should be between 0 and 1 that represents the lowest
density level at which black ink will start to mix in with
colored ink to generate grays. The lower this is, the less
density is required to use black ink. Setting this too low
will result in speckling from black dots, particularly on 6
and 7 color printers. Setting this too high will make it
hard to get satisfactory black or may result in sharp
transition between blended colors and black. Default:
0.0468.
</P
><P
> It is important to note that since the density scale is
never linear (and since this value is adjusted via other
things happening during the dithering process) that this
does not mean that 95% gray will use any black ink. At this
setting, there will be no black ink used until about 50%
gray.
</P
><P
> This only applies to color mode.
</P
><P
> This value should be set lower for printers capable of
variable dot size, since more dots can be laid down close to
each other.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_black_upper</CODE
> takes a double
that should be between 0 and 1 that represents the highest
density level at which colored inks will be mixed to create
gray. Setting this too low will result in speckly dark
grays because there is not enough ink to fill all the holes,
or sharp transition between blended colors and black if it
is too close to the value of
<CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_black_upper</CODE
> Setting this too
high will result in poor black and dark tone quality.
Default: 0.5. This results in 10% and darker grays being
printed with essentially all black.
</P
><P
> This only applies to color mode.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_black_levels</CODE
> takes three
doubles that represent the amount of cyan, magenta, and
yellow respectively that are blended to create gray. The
defaults are 1.0 for each, which is probably too low for
most printers. These values are adjusted to create a good
gray balance. Setting these too low will result in pale
light and midtone grays, with a sharp transition to darker
tones as black mixes in. Setting them too high will result
in overly dark grays and use of too much ink, possibly
creating bleed-through.
</P
><P
> This only applies to color mode.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_randomizers</CODE
> takes four
integer values representing the degree of randomness used
for cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. This is used to allow
some printing to take place in pale areas. Zero is the most
random; greater than 8 or so gives very little randomness at
all. Defaults are 0 for cyan, magenta, and yellow, and 4
for black. Setting the value for black too low will result
in black speckling in pale areas. Setting values too high
will result in pale areas getting no ink at all.
</P
><P
> This currently only applies to single dot size in color and
black. It should be extended to operate in variable dot
size mode, although actually applying it correctly will be
tricky.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_ink_darkness</CODE
> takes three
doubles representing the contribution to perceived darkness
of cyan, magenta, and yellow. This is used to help decide
when to switch between light and dark inks in 6 and 7 color
printers (with light cyan, light magenta, and possibly light
yellow). Setting these too low will result in too much
light ink being laid down, creating flat spots in the
darkness curves and bleed-through. Setting them too high
will result in dark ink being used in pale areas, creating
speckle. The defaults are .4 for cyan, .3 for magenta, and
.2 for yellow. Dark cyan will show against yellow much more
than dark magenta will show against cyan, since the cyan
appears much darker than the yellow.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_light_inks</CODE
> takes three
doubles between 0 and 1 representing the ratio in darkness
between the light and dark versions of the inks. Setting
these too low will result in too much dark ink being used in
pale areas, creating speckling, while setting them too high
will result in very smooth texture but too much use of light
ink, resulting in flat spots in the density curves and ink
bleed-through. There are no defaults. Any light ink
specified as zero indicates that there is no light ink for
that color.
</P
><P
> This only applies to 6 and 7 color printers in single dot
size color mode, and only to those inks which have light
versions (usually cyan and magenta).
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_ink_spread</CODE
> takes a small
integer representing the amount of ink spread in the dither.
Larger numbers mean less spread. Larger values are
appropriate for line art and solid tones; they will yield
sharper transitions but more dither artifacts. Smaller
values are more appropriate for photos. They will reduce
resolution and sharpness but reduce dither artifacts up to a
point. A value of 16 or higher implies minimum ink spread
at any resolution no matter what the overdensity. A value
of 14 is typical for photos on single dot size, 6 color
printers. For 4 color printers, subtract 1 (more spread;
the dots are farther apart). For variable dot size
printers, add 1 (more small dots are printed; less spread is
desirable).
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_adaptive_divisor</CODE
> takes a
float representing the transition point between error
diffusion and ordered dither if adaptive dithering is used.
The float is a fraction of the printing density. For
example, if you wish the transition to be at 1/4 of the
maximum density (which works well on simple 4-color
printers), you would pass .25 here. With six colors and/or
with multiple dot sizes, the values should be set lower.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_transition</CODE
> takes a float
representing the exponent of the transition curve between
light and dark inks/dot sizes. A value less than 1 (typical
when using error diffusion) mixes in less dark ink/small
dots at lower ends of the range, to reduce speckling. When
using ordered dithering, this must be set to 1.
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_X_ranges_simple</CODE
>
(<VAR
CLASS="literal"
>X</VAR
> = <VAR
CLASS="literal"
>c</VAR
>,
<VAR
CLASS="literal"
>m</VAR
>, <VAR
CLASS="literal"
>y</VAR
> or
<VAR
CLASS="literal"
>k</VAR
>) describes the ink choices available
for each color. This is useful in typical cases where a
four color printer with variable dot sizes is in use. It is
passed an array of doubles between (0, 1] representing the
relative darkness of each dot size. The dot sizes are
assigned bit patterns (and ink quantities, see
<CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_ink_budget</CODE
> above) from 1 to
the number of levels. This also requires a density, which
is the desired density for this color. This density need
not equal the density specified in
<CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_density</CODE
>. Setting it lower
will tend to print more dark ink (because the curves are
calculated for this color assuming a lower density than is
actually supplied).
</P
></LI
><LI
><P
> <CODE
CLASS="function"
>dither_set_X_ranges</CODE
>
(<VAR
CLASS="literal"
>X</VAR
> = <VAR
CLASS="literal"
>c</VAR
>,
<VAR
CLASS="literal"
>m</VAR
>, <VAR
CLASS="literal"
>y</VAR
> or
<VAR
CLASS="literal"
>k</VAR
>) describes in a more general way the
ink choices available for each color. For each possible ink
choice, a bit pattern, dot size, value (i. e. relative
darkness), and whether the ink is the dark or light variant
ink is specified.
</P
></LI
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